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    • All HBS Web  (209)
      • Faculty Publications  (27)

      Open Architecture Remove Open Architecture →

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      • January 2022 (Revised August 2022)
      • Case

      Geely SEA: New Electric Vehicle Platforms

      By: Willy C. Shih and Shu Lin
      Kent Bovellan, the Chief Engineer and Head of the Vehicle Architecture Center for Geely Holding, the Hangzhou, China headquartered global automotive group, was debating the platform choice for an upcoming "D" segment midsized battery electric vehicle (BEV). He had led...  View Details
      Keywords: Product Innovation; Product Architecture; Product Engineering; Platform Design; Platform Strategy; Information Infrastructure; Digital Platforms; Information Technology; Product Design; Product Development; Cost Management; Decision Making; Competitive Strategy; Industry Structures; Auto Industry; China; Sweden
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      Shih, Willy C., and Shu Lin. "Geely SEA: New Electric Vehicle Platforms." Harvard Business School Case 622-001, January 2022. (Revised August 2022.)
      • 2019
      • Article

      Overcoming Cultural Resistance to Open Source Innovation

      By: John Winsor, Jin Hyun Paik, Michael Tushman and Karim R. Lakhani
      Purpose: This article offers insight on how to effectively help incumbent organizations prepare for global business shifts to open source and digital business models.
      Design/methodology/approach: Discussion related to observation, experience and case studies...  View Details
      Keywords: Open Source Innovation; Organizational Culture; Organizational Change and Adaptation; Business Model; Technological Innovation; Collaborative Innovation and Invention
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      Winsor, John, Jin Hyun Paik, Michael Tushman, and Karim R. Lakhani. "Overcoming Cultural Resistance to Open Source Innovation." Strategy & Leadership 47, no. 6 (2019): 28–33.
      • October 14, 2019
      • Article

      The Truth About Open Offices: There Are Reasons Why They Don't Produce the Desired Interactions

      By: Ethan Bernstein and Ben Waber
      It’s never been easier for workers to collaborate—or so it seems. Open, flexible, activity-based spaces are displacing cubicles, making people more visible. Messaging is displacing phone calls, making people more accessible. Enterprise social media such as Slack and...  View Details
      Keywords: Buildings and Facilities; Interpersonal Communication; Communication Technology; Design; Human Resources; Performance Productivity; Organizational Design
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      Bernstein, Ethan, and Ben Waber. "The Truth About Open Offices: There Are Reasons Why They Don't Produce the Desired Interactions." Harvard Business Review 97, no. 6 (November–December 2019): 82–91.
      • October 2018
      • Case

      Safecast: Bootstrapping Human Capital to Big Data

      By: Ethan Bernstein and Stephanie Marton
      On March 11, 2011 at 2:46pm, a 9.1-on-the-Richter-scale, six-minute long earthquake unleashed a tsunami that ravaged the Tohoku region of Japan, damaging the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power facility and releasing sufficient radioactive material into the air and ocean...  View Details
      Keywords: Citizen Science; Creative Commons; Open Data; Open Architecture; Volunteer-based Organization; Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Facility; 311; Nuclear; Radiation; Crowdsourcing; Bgeigie; Geiger Counters; Kickstarter; Sustainability; Sustainable Business And Innovation; Design; Energy Generation; Social Entrepreneurship; Human Capital; Innovation and Invention; Crisis Management; Organizational Structure; Organizational Design; Information Technology; Business Model; Energy Industry; Technology Industry; Japan; North and Central America; Europe
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      Bernstein, Ethan, and Stephanie Marton. "Safecast: Bootstrapping Human Capital to Big Data." Harvard Business School Case 419-033, October 2018.
      • Article

      The Impact of the 'Open' Workspace on Human Collaboration

      By: Ethan Bernstein and Stephen Turban
      Organizations’ pursuit of increased workplace collaboration has led managers to transform traditional office spaces into “open,” transparency-enhancing architectures with fewer walls, doors, and other spatial boundaries, yet there is scant direct empirical research on...  View Details
      Keywords: Open Office; Transparency; Collaboration; Collective Intelligence; Workspace; Workspace Design; Architecture; Cubicles; Boundaries; Spatial Boundaries; Human Behavior; Propinquity; Co-location; Interaction; Sociometers; People Analytics; Buildings and Facilities; Communication; Design; Human Resources; Leadership; Management; Organizational Design; Organizational Structure; Networks; Social and Collaborative Networks; Technology; United States
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      Bernstein, Ethan, and Stephen Turban. "The Impact of the 'Open' Workspace on Human Collaboration." Art. 239. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences 373, no. 1753 (August 19, 2018).
      • August 2017
      • Article

      Should Governments Invest More in Nudging?

      By: Shlomo Benartzi, John Beshears, Katherine L. Milkman, Cass R. Sunstein, Richard H. Thaler, Maya Shankar, Will Tucker-Ray, William J. Congdon and Steven Galing
      Governments are increasingly adopting behavioral science techniques for changing individual behavior in pursuit of policy objectives. The types of “nudge” interventions that governments are now adopting alter people’s decisions without coercion or significant changes...  View Details
      Keywords: Nudge; Nudge Unit; Choice Architecture; Behavioral Science; Behavioral Economics; Savings; Pension Plan; Education; College Enrollment; Energy; Electricity Usage; Preventive Health; Influenza Vaccination; Flu Shot; Open Materials; Behavior; Governance; Economics; Policy; Power and Influence
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      Benartzi, Shlomo, John Beshears, Katherine L. Milkman, Cass R. Sunstein, Richard H. Thaler, Maya Shankar, Will Tucker-Ray, William J. Congdon, and Steven Galing. "Should Governments Invest More in Nudging?" Psychological Science 28, no. 8 (August 2017): 1041–1055.
      • Other Article

      Exploring the Relationship Between Architecture Coupling and Software Vulnerabilities

      By: Robert Lagerstrom, Carliss Y. Baldwin, Alan MacCormack, Daniel J. Sturtevant and Lee Doolan
      Employing software metrics, such as size and complexity, for predicting defects has been given a lot of attention over the years and proven very useful. However, the few studies looking at software architecture and vulnerabilities are limited in scope and findings. We...  View Details
      Keywords: Security Vulnerabilities; Software Architecture; Metrics; Software; Complexity; Measurement and Metrics
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      Lagerstrom, Robert, Carliss Y. Baldwin, Alan MacCormack, Daniel J. Sturtevant, and Lee Doolan. "Exploring the Relationship Between Architecture Coupling and Software Vulnerabilities." Proceedings of the International Symposium on Engineering Secure Software and Systems (ESSoS) 9th (2017): 53–69. (Part of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, ISSN 0302-9743.)
      • October 2016 (Revised July 2017)
      • Case

      The Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra: Cultural Entrepreneurship

      By: Rohit Deshpande and Annelena Lobb
      The Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra (LA Phil), under the leadership of Deborah Borda, had enjoyed great successes in the 2000s and 2010s, even as other U.S. orchestras faltered. The architecturally acclaimed Walt Disney Concert Hall had opened its doors. The...  View Details
      Keywords: Product Positioning; Arts; Music Entertainment; Growth and Development Strategy; Business Growth and Maturation; Cultural Entrepreneurship; Music Industry; Entertainment and Recreation Industry; Los Angeles
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      Deshpande, Rohit, and Annelena Lobb. "The Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra: Cultural Entrepreneurship." Harvard Business School Case 517-006, October 2016. (Revised July 2017.)
      • 2016
      • Working Paper

      The Mirroring Hypothesis: Theory, Evidence and Exceptions

      By: Lyra J. Colfer and Carliss Y. Baldwin
      The mirroring hypothesis predicts that organizational ties within a project, firm, or group of firms (e.g., communication, collocation, employment) will correspond to the technical patterns of dependency in the work being performed. A thorough understanding of the...  View Details
      Keywords: Modularity; Innovation; Product And Process Development; Organization Design; Design Structure; Organizational Ties; Mirroring Hypothesis; Industry Architecture; Product Architecture; Complex Technical Systems; Information Technology; Organizational Design; Organizational Structure; Relationships; Innovation and Invention; Product Development
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      Colfer, Lyra J., and Carliss Y. Baldwin. "The Mirroring Hypothesis: Theory, Evidence and Exceptions." Harvard Business School Working Paper, No. 16-124, April 2016. (Revised May 2016.)
      • Summer 2013
      • Article

      IP Modularity: Profiting from Innovation by Aligning Product Architecture with Intellectual Property

      By: Joachim Henkel, Carliss Y. Baldwin and Willy C. Shih
      Firms seeking to take advantage of distributed innovation and outsourcing can bridge the tension between value creation and value capture by modifying the modular structure of their technical systems. Specifically, this article introduces the concept of "IP...  View Details
      Keywords: Modularity; Value Appropriation; Distributed Innovation; Open Innovation; Innovation Strategy; Intellectual Property; Value
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      Henkel, Joachim, Carliss Y. Baldwin, and Willy C. Shih. "IP Modularity: Profiting from Innovation by Aligning Product Architecture with Intellectual Property." California Management Review 55, no. 4 (Summer 2013): 65–82.
      • March 2013 (Revised October 2013)
      • Supplement

      Jones Lang LaSalle (2012): Integrated Services and the Architecture of Complexity (D)

      By: Ranjay Gulati and Luciana Silvestri
      This case describes the strategic and organizational challenges that Jones Lang LaSalle (JLL) faced between 2008 and 2012. In 2008, in order to strengthen the firm's brokerage team, JLL merged with The Staubach Company, a real estate services provider with a first-rate...  View Details
      Keywords: Organizational Structure; Strategy; Integration; Real Estate Industry; North America; South America; Central America
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      Gulati, Ranjay, and Luciana Silvestri. "Jones Lang LaSalle (2012): Integrated Services and the Architecture of Complexity (D)." Harvard Business School Supplement 113-117, March 2013. (Revised October 2013.)
      • 2012
      • Working Paper

      Modularity and Organizations

      By: Carliss Y. Baldwin
      Modularity describes the degree to which a complex system can be broken apart into subunits (modules) that can be recombined in various ways. Modularity is important for organizations and the economy because the boundaries of organizational units and corporations are...  View Details
      Keywords: Complex Systems; Information Hiding; Loosely-coupled Systems; Mirroring; Mirroring Hypothesis; Modules; Modularity; Near-decomposable Systems; Product Architecture; Option Value; Organizational Design; Complexity
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      Baldwin, Carliss Y. "Modularity and Organizations." Harvard Business School Working Paper, No. 13-046, November 2012. (To appear in the Elsevier International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2nd edition; available on request to the author.)
      • Article

      The Future of Economic, Business, and Social History

      By: G. Jones, Marco H.D. van Leeuwen and Stephen Broadberry
      Three leading scholars in the fields of business, economic, and social history review the current state of these disciplines and reflect on their future trajectory. Geoffrey Jones reviews the development of business history since its birth at the Harvard Business...  View Details
      Keywords: Economic History; Business History; History; Asia; Africa; Europe; Latin America; North and Central America
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      Jones, G., Marco H.D. van Leeuwen, and Stephen Broadberry. "The Future of Economic, Business, and Social History." Scandinavian Economic History Review 60, no. 3 (2012): 225–253.
      • Article

      Exploring the Duality Between Product and Organizational Architectures: A Test of the 'Mirroring' Hypothesis

      By: Alan MacCormack, Carliss Y. Baldwin and John Rusnak
      A variety of academic studies argue that a relationship exists between the structure of an organization and the design of the products that the organization produces. Specifically, products tend to "mirror" the architectures of the organizations in which they are...  View Details
      Keywords: Organization Design; Architecture; Modularity; Open Source Software; Communication; Design; Governance; Management Practices and Processes; Open Source Distribution; Product Design; Mission and Purpose; Organizational Structure; Performance; Problems and Challenges; Behavior; Software
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      MacCormack, Alan, Carliss Y. Baldwin, and John Rusnak. "Exploring the Duality Between Product and Organizational Architectures: A Test of the 'Mirroring' Hypothesis." Research Policy 41, no. 8 (October 2012): 1309–1324.
      • 2012
      • Working Paper

      IP Modularity: Profiting from Innovation by Aligning Product Architecture with Intellectual Property

      By: Joachim Henkel, Carliss Y. Baldwin and Willy C. Shih
      In this paper we explain how firms seeking to take advantage of distributed innovation and outsourcing can bridge the tension between value creation and value capture by modifying the modular structure of their technical systems. Specifically, we introduce the concept...  View Details
      Keywords: Modularity; Value Appropriation; Distributed Innovation; Open Innovation; Strategy; Open Source Distribution; Value; Complexity; Intellectual Property
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      Henkel, Joachim, Carliss Y. Baldwin, and Willy C. Shih. "IP Modularity: Profiting from Innovation by Aligning Product Architecture with Intellectual Property." Harvard Business School Working Paper, No. 13-012, August 2012. (Revised November 2012.)
      • 2012
      • Chapter

      IP Modularity in Software Ecosystems: How SugarCRM's IP and Business Model Shape Its Product Architecture

      By: Josef Waltl, Joachim Henkel and Carliss Y. Baldwin
      Keywords: Business Model; Digital Platforms; Open Source Distribution; Complexity; Applications and Software; Intellectual Property
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      Waltl, Josef, Joachim Henkel, and Carliss Y. Baldwin. "IP Modularity in Software Ecosystems: How SugarCRM's IP and Business Model Shape Its Product Architecture." In Software Business: Proceedings of the Third International Conference, ICSOB 2012, by M. A. Cusumano, B. Iyer, and N. Venkatraman, 94–106. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag, 2012.
      • November – December 2011
      • Article

      Modeling a Paradigm Shift: From Producer Innovation to User and Open Collaborative Innovation

      By: Carliss Baldwin and Eric von Hippel
      In this paper, we assess the economic viability of innovation by producers relative to two increasingly important alternative models: innovations by single-user individuals or firms and open collaborative innovation. We analyze the design costs and architectures and...  View Details
      Keywords: Collaborative Innovation and Invention; Design; Cost; Communication; Competition; Economy; Research; Policy; Practice
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      Baldwin, Carliss, and Eric von Hippel. "Modeling a Paradigm Shift: From Producer Innovation to User and Open Collaborative Innovation." Organization Science 22, no. 6 (November–December 2011): 1399–1417.
      • December 2010
      • Case

      Leadership, Culture, and Transition at lululemon

      By: Michael Tushman, Ruth Page and Tom Ryder
      The case examines leadership and organizational change within a strong culture context through a multimedia study of lululemon, a specialty retailer of high-end athletic apparel. Video segments trace the company's history from its founding in 1998 as a single retail...  View Details
      Keywords: Leading Change; Organizational Culture; Organizational Change and Adaptation; Change Management; Transition; Growth Management; Management Teams; Organizational Structure; Governing and Advisory Boards; Apparel and Accessories Industry; Retail Industry; Vancouver; United States
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      Tushman, Michael, Ruth Page, and Tom Ryder. "Leadership, Culture, and Transition at lululemon." Harvard Business School Multimedia/Video Case 410-705, December 2010.
      • 2010
      • Working Paper

      When Open Architecture Beats Closed: The Entrepreneurial Use of Architectural Knowledge

      By: Carliss Y. Baldwin
      This paper describes how entrepreneurial firms can use superior architectural knowledge to open up a technical system to gain strategic advantage. The strategy involves, first, identifying "bottlenecks" in the existing system, and then creating a new open architecture...  View Details
      Keywords: Entrepreneurship; Investment Return; Growth and Development Strategy; Product Design; Organizational Design; Competitive Advantage; Technology Industry
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      Baldwin, Carliss Y. "When Open Architecture Beats Closed: The Entrepreneurial Use of Architectural Knowledge." Harvard Business School Working Paper, No. 10-063, February 2010. (Revised July 2010, October 2010.)
      • 2009
      • Working Paper

      Modeling a Paradigm Shift: From Producer Innovation to User and Open Collaborative Innovation

      By: Carliss Y. Baldwin and Eric von Hippel
      In this paper we assess the economic viability of innovation by producers relative to two increasingly important alternative models: innovations by single user individuals or firms, and open collaborative innovation projects. We analyze the design costs and...  View Details
      Keywords: Cost; Policy; Collaborative Innovation and Invention; Independent Innovation and Invention; Intellectual Property; Rights; Welfare
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      Baldwin, Carliss Y., and Eric von Hippel. "Modeling a Paradigm Shift: From Producer Innovation to User and Open Collaborative Innovation." Harvard Business School Working Paper, No. 10-038, November 2009.
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